Two of the most powerful powers of the post-classical period were the Arab and Byzantine empires. Each had different political, religious, and economic differences that defined their respective cultures and managed to create vast empires that greatly rivaled each other. The political structure of the Arab and Byzantine empires differed greatly from each other. The Arab Empire was ruled by a caliphate. The Caliphate was the successor of the great prophet Muhammad. Politically, the Caliphate sometimes caused problems for the stability of the empire. The fact that multiple groups such as the Umayyads and Abbasids believed they were in charge of the Caliphate led to conflict and violence. An example of conflict would be towards the end of the Abbasid empire, when the death of Harun al-Rashid brought several large-scale revolutions. Another example would be at the beginning of the Abbasid empire, when they went so far as to kill all remaining Umayyad leaders to maintain full control with little to no interference. Politically, the Arab/Muslim empire stretched from India and the Middle East to Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Iberian Peninsula. They also had a great influence in Southeast Asia. When they conquered these areas, there was no forced conversion. On the other hand, they imposed a higher tax on non-Muslims, which pushed people to convert. Only later were there violently forced conversions. A testimony to this would be when Muslims invaded India and did not touch the Buddhists or Hindus already there. They even respected the Hindu leadership and allowed them to continue. The Muslim empire succeeded in other parts of the world through tolerance and continued to operate despite power struggles. P...... half the population of paper ......nt, provided goods to support the empire through agriculture and taxes. The bureaucracy controlled the trade and prices of food products. These prices were constantly kept low to please the common people in an attempt to avoid riots. Large trade routes were established between Asia, Russia and Scandinavia. These trade routes allowed them to export luxury goods such as textiles, carpets, and spices. They also imported goods from other nations such as silk. Merchants never gained much governmental power due to the complex makeup of the government and closely resembled that of China. As you can see, the Byzantine and Arab empires had many characteristics that defined them. Whether through their religious beliefs, political structure, or economy, each was able to create a vast and enduring empire that came to define the post-classical period..